In this article David Snowden and Mary Boone describe the Cynefin framework, a sense-making device developed to help people make sense of the complexities made visible by the relaxation of these assumptions. The framework is explained and its use in group sense-making and discourse is described. The Cynefin framework helps leaders determine the prevailing operative context so that they can make appropriate choices. Each domain requires different actions. Simple and complicated contexts assume an ordered universe, where cause-and-effect relationships are perceptible, and right answers can be determined based on the facts. Complex and chaotic contexts are unordered—there is no immediately apparent relationship between cause and effect, and the way forward is determined based on emerging patterns. The ordered world is the world of fact-based management; the unordered world represents pattern-based management. The very nature of the fifth context – disorder – makes it particularly difficult to recognize when one is in it. Here, multiple perspectives jostle for prominence, factional leaders argue with one another, a cacophony rules. The way out of this realm is to break down the situation into constituent parts and assign each to one of the other four realms. Leaders can then make decisions and intervene in contextually appropriate ways.

This chapter of Marc Buelens and Geert Devos relates the effectiveness of change strategies to the fit between the playing field and change. Change strategies are seen as a pattern in a stream of decisions and activities, reflecting consistency of behavior over time. Internal and external environments of organizations can be so different that a clear understanding of the specific situation is essential to choose appropriate change strategies. The playing field is described in terms of two general dimensions: power distance and uncertainty. In a context with high power distance and low uncertainty, a change strategy based on action planning seems most appropriate, with a top-down approach, strong leadership, and participation in the implementation process. Situations of low power distance demand a negotiation approach. In contexts of high uncertainties, a change strategy of information registration and experimentation is needed. Because organizational change is complex and diverse, there are many reasons for change failures. Specific change failures are elaborated in traditional environments, high-pressure environments, professional environments, and experimental environments. This chapter concludes with the proposition that effective integration of different change strategies adapted to the change environment determines the success of change efforts.

In this article Mary Jo Hatch and Majken Schulz bring together existing theory concerning the links between organizational identities and images, with new theory concerning how reflection embeds identity in organizational culture and how identity expresses cultural understandings through symbols. They offer a model of organizational identity dynamics built on four processes linking organizational identity to culture and image. The contribution of this article lies in articulation of the processes linking identity and culture, and the interaction of mirroring, reflecting, expressing and impressing working dynamically together to create, maintain and change organizational identity. They discuss the implications of their model in terms of two dysfunctions of organizational identity dynamics: narcissism and loss of culture.

Organizations, like people, have essential natures defined by their formative experiences, their beliefs, their knowledge bases and their core competences. Attempts at change that are in conflict with this core identity are often doomed to failure. Managers can learn to recognize such conflicts and initiate identity change to make their companies more adaptive. The transformation of a company’s identity is easier when key stakeholders understand the need for radical change of the organization but feel relatively secure about the continuity of its business. Thus, managers who want to help their organizations achieve substantive, but peaceful, change need to be aware of, and anticipate the possibility of, identity obsolescence just as they anticipate the obsolescence of products, systems or business strategies. By doing so, they can prepare internal and external stakeholders to cope with identity change as a normal event in an environment where strategic change may not be sufficient for survival.

In this chapter Morten Levin presents strategies for managing participative change processes. Special attention is given to the role of two external players: external facilitators and professional outsiders. External facilitators may participate in change processes and play a role in promoting change that will increase the ability of members within the organization to enhance the learning abilities of the organization and its members. Outsiders generate new local insights and shared understanding by collective reflection and learning during the change process. Shared problem identification is not easy because insiders and outsiders are unknown to each other and their world views and values are probably very different Therefore it is crucial to find a common point of departure that is meaningful for all participants. Experimenting, reflecting and learning could be initiated and stimulated with several change strategies and intervention methods. Attention is given to search conferences, dialoguing conferences, mutual gains bargaining, conventional meetings, and the use of taskforces. Choosing and creating a suitable arena for collective reflection is a crucial design criterion in Organization Development and learning. In this arena, problem owners and outside facilitators share reflection and learning opportunities and give shape to transformative activities.

In this chapter André Wierdsma states that changing and learning need collective competencies to deal with variety and complexity. For the viability of organizing, it is crucial to deal with mutual differences on the basis of action, and the ability to learn from that action in a collective context. Organizing is regarded as organizing activities with the purpose of effecting transactions with stakeholders in the value chain. In this approach processes of changing are related with competencies of people to deconstruct and reconstruct meanings together, and re-order relationships and activities to take account of complexity and variety. In this chapter, a methodology is developed for co-creation in processes of changing and learning. Starting point is that player groups are willing to participate and learn during change processes together with players inside the organization. Eight principles for co-creating in change are worked out in detail. The methodology and intervention principles are illustrated with practical examples.

This chapter deals with the question why many change programs bog down and what we can do about it. The chapter provides an overall picture of the dynamics of organizational change and learning, and the contemporary challenges that face the discipline of organizational change management. It is argued that many explanations of why change programs bog down concentrate too much on organizational and psychological aspects and entities, and pay too little attention to the change process itself. The underlying reasons why change programs bog down are sought in the behavior of different key players during change processes and the assumptions regarding organizational change on which the behavior of these actors is based. Insights from planned change and organizational development are discussed and change strategies are elaborated. An alternative is outlined in which dynamics in organizing and changing are looked upon as a source of renewal in the processes of self-organization and organizational sensemaking.

This book chapter of Léon de Caluwé and Hans Vermaak elaborate on complexity and multiplicity in change processes. Given that more organizational change takes place unplanned than planned, and more unsuccessful than successful, there is much reason to reflect on why change does not work. Léon and Hans discuss several perspectives on irrationalities and why change processes are so often frustrating events. They suggest that over-reliance on rational top-down and contingency approaches can be rendered fruitless as a result of these irrationalities. After reflecting on the question what makes change work, five prevailing paradigms about changing are explored. Each of these paradigms are associated with beliefs and assumptions, and characterized in terms of their characteristics such as predictability, ideals, pitfalls, action strategies, style of change agents, and intervention methods. The presentation of this multiplicity approach could help participants to deal with complexity in processes of changing. The ability of change agents to take a multi-paradigmatic perspective could help to gain insight in the lack of success of planned change. Taking a multi-paradigmatic perspective allows becoming aware of ways of defining and solving problems, and opens up new possibilities by making conscious and collective choices for organizing and changing.

In this text Jaap Boonstra describes how successful businesses regard their organizational cultures and the motives for them to change their cultures. Many businesses regard culture as the identity of their organizations. This view of culture that was developed 30 years ago still has value today. Businesses also see culture as a learning process. In recent years, there has also been awareness of differentiated cultural values as a source of conflict. These tensions between existing cultural values may be a source for renewal and innovation. This new perspective regards conflict as a source of radical renewal. The culture of an organization is inextricably connected to the strategy, structure and systems of the organization. More than ever, the meaning for customers is the key element. Leaders who choose strategic and cultural change in organizations choose a change process in which the values for customers, employees and external partners are increasingly clear. Leaders play an essential role in this process of value creation and giving of meaning. The text sheds light on different ways of looking at organizational cultures. This multiple view helps leaders, managers and employees to choose how they want to work on their own organizational culture.

This article offers a framework for understanding power dynamics and organizational change. Five perspectives are presented to explore the relationships between change approaches, the power used to effect changes, the agents involved in the change process, the most prominent change strategies and influence tactics, and the behavioral outcomes. The perspectives are related to different levels of analysis and contingency factors. New questions are being raised about the institutionalization of power, the way power dynamics hinder organizational change, the will and skill to use power in change processes, and the power of communication and democratic dialogue in organizational learning.

This text gives some insight into the change approach for a successful change of the culture in organizations. The real art with every change assignment is choosing an approach that suits the situation. Copying the approach that was successful for another company will not help as the situation in your own company is always different. The task is not to stick strictly to a chosen change approach but in fact to keep track of how the change takes shape. Choosing a change approach actually means continually monitoring the changes by continuing the discussion about them with all parties concerned. Leaders in cultural change are not afraid to adjust the approach if necessary. Jaap Boonstra describes six basic principles and twenty ingredients for a successful change approach of cultural change in organizations. The principles are the conditions of successful cultural change. They indicate the areas that leaders in cultural change must pay attention to, no matter what. The success factors for the approach to cultural change in organizations can provide inspiration for choosing your own change approach.

Almost three quarters of all change efforts fail to achieve the intended result. This chapter reflects on theories, methodologies, and practices for organizational change and learning, and wish to contribute to achieving better results in changing organizations. The chapter offers and understanding in the dynamics of organizational change and learning and untangles the mysteries of change processes. This chapter offers no clear set of ‘rules of thumb’ or ‘best  ways’ to change organizations effectively but presents divergent perspectives which may be helpful to develop new perspectives. The chapter starts with reflections on the dynamics of organizational change and learning. It compares multiple perspectives on change and learning, and explores tensions between the perspectives. The second section summarizes change methods presented in this handbook, and links them to assumptions and values in organizational change. The third section focuses on specific issues in organizational change and learning. This chapter concludes with opportunities and questions as to the dynamics of organizational change and learning. In this way this chapter may encourage practitioners, scholars and scientists to reflect on their own practices and theories, to elaborate on their own fascinations, and to develop and explain their own methodologies to change organizations successfully.

In this text, specific light is thrown on the essence of leadership in cultural change. It is essential that players in changing organizations are conscious of developments in their environment. They know what is at hand and can sense what people are concerned about. They have a social consciousness and are self-conscious. Initiators in cultural change display transformational leadership. They show the way in an uncertain environment by articulating a vision of the future. They show where the limits are by formulating visions, ambitions and core values. In order to realize change, they get people together and organize teamwork to make renewal possible. They build on trust and have confidence in people’s own strengths. Good leaders form vital coalitions and they work on change from a position of commitment and personal motives. The text contains wonderful examples of people who take the initiative and work on cultural change and can form a source of inspiration for initiating your own necessary or desired change. The text offer an up-to-date overview of contemporary leadership, whose basis is formed by the creation of value for customers and presents concrete leadership behavior for working successfully on deep changes in organizations.

The use of nine influence tactics by line managers, staff specialists, consultants, and work councils are described in organizations in constructive change processes. Differences in direction of influence (upward, downward, or lateral) were assessed and compared to results of previous research in different settings. It was found that rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation were the most frequently used influence tactics. This is an encouraging finding because these three tactics are most effective for gaining target commitment to a proposal or request. In addition, it was found that the four groups used several influence tactics differently. Finally, only three directional differences in tactic use matched prior findings. This result suggests that constructive change processes lead employees to display different influence behavior than they would in less uncertain and ambiguous circumstances.

Over the past few decades, intervention methods have been invented and tested; these are geared towards searching, understanding, acting, learning and giving meaning. A characteristic feature of these methods is the attention given to processes of interaction whereby meanings about organizing and changing are discussed. This chapter presents most recent developments by describing the methods, the underlying literature and theories to help change managers and consultants act in a well-considered way in changing organizations. The chapter starts with a view on the paradoxical world we live in because this world forms the context in which professional change agents work. Next interactive  interventions are presented that are very different from other groups of interventions. The third section describes nine domains of theoretical knowledge and insights that form the theoretical foundations for these interventions. The fourth describes eleven basic principles to interactive interventions. These basic principles can be the starting point for a better understanding of the effectiveness of intervening aimed at meaning in interaction.

This text offers a wealth of play formats with which an organization’s culture can be changed successfully. People who participate in a change often have an ambition that guides the change process. All kinds of tools and activities are available in this process that can help leaders in cultural change while the change is taking place. Play formats are the tools on an exciting journey and the activities that are needed to realize an ambition. However, these formats are not recipes that you can use just like that. The skill is in having a vision of the reason and the nature of the change. Play formats are embedded in the chosen change approach. It is also relevant to have a perception of the different actors and roles in the change process. The nature of the change, the change approach and the actors affect the choice of possible interventions. A huge variety of fifty specific activities can be found that are useful in cultural change. Examples from the companies are illustrative and brief descriptions of play formats offer insight into the possible uses. The description of these interventions is a source of inspiration for people who want to be active in cultural change.

Cultural change in organizations is an adventurous journey in itself, which needs people who are willing to take advantage, prepared to collaborate and ready to change and take the lead. There are many possible routes to take when initiators and leaders decide to challenge and change organizational cultures. This final part helps leaders in cultural change to choose their way in successful organizational change. The first part of this text focuses on trajectories for cultural change in organizations based on eight different routes. These routes may be combined in a coherent journey to create new business ideas and contribute to the success of organizations. The routes in this chapter characterize the paths followed by successful leaders in cultural change together with people in their organizations. A clear perspective of the routes for change contributes to the success of changes. The second part of this text brings together the essentials of cultural change and leadership in organizations. Guiding principles and success factors for cultural change are summarized which are helpful to be a successful leader in cultural change in organizations.

Realizing major organizational change and innovation is a complex process and many organizations do not obtain the outcomes they desire. This article describes which factors hinder or contribute to far-reaching change. These factors are sought in characteristics of organizations, and in the design and management of change processes. Underlying patterns in the change capacity of organizations suggest that the change capacity of organizations is neither low nor high. Five configurations show distinct patterns in factors that frustrate or contribute to change. The configurations are the innovative organization, the longing organization, the organization with aged technology, the organization with a clumsy change approach, and the cynical organization. The configurations demonstrate that focusing on multiple aspects of organizations and change processes is important to fully comprehend what hinders and helps organizations change. Furthermore, it is concluded that a sense of urgency is not needed for change to take place, that resistance to change is related to the management of the change process, that each configuration requires specific interventions, and that con- figurations may be related to organizational variables as sector and size.

In this turbulent time of globalization, technological innovation, and intense competition, change is essential for the survival and prosperity of business organizations.  Players in organizational change bear a major responsibility for advocating, initiating, and facilitating major changes in the organization. There are many opportunities to influence change. Leaders influence subordinates to implement ‘top down’ change. Leaders influence bosses to approve and support a ‘bottom up’ change. Leaders influence peers to join in a coalition to gain approval from higher management for a proposed change. Leaders also seek assistance from peers in implementing a change that has already been authorized by higher management. This chapter describes how interpersonal influence is exerted in attempts by individual players to initiate or facilitate organizational change. The chapter begins with a description of findings in research on dyadic influence tactics. Next is a review on how players use influence tactics to initiate change in organizations and how they can create facilitating conditions for initiating change and follow guidelines for using specific tactics effectively.

Being an influential player in organizational change demands the expression of an authentic self. A person cannot be authentic on his or her own. Authenticity is a quality that others must attribute to you. This article explores the qualities of authentic leadership. Reflections on authentic leaders contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between the expression of self and the exercise of leadership. Establishing your authenticity as a leader is a two-part challenge. First, you have to ensure that your words are consistent with your deeds; otherwise, followers will never accept you as authentic. The second challenge of authentic leadership is finding common ground with the people you seek to recruit as followers. This means you will have to present different faces to different audiences. Establishing your  authenticity is based on three pillars: getting to know yourself and your origins, get to know others and connect to the organizational context. Leaders who know how to manage their authenticity will be all the more effective, better able to both energize and retain loyal followers and players in changing organizations.